Chapter 8, Max Weber

• Max Weber was born in Erfurt, Saxony
• Helene and Max were from prosperous, upper class families
• Helene was a devout Protestant
• His father was a stern patriarch
• Max-in the liberal party-middle of the road, constitutional/deferred to "iron-rule"
• father-moral compromise/mother:moral absolutism
• Weber was more of a moral absolutist
• historians, politicians, academics visited the home
• Weber joined a fraternity: drunk/duels/brawls
• During his first undergraduate year, Weber gained a great deal of weight and acquired the obligatory dueling scar across his cheek.
• elegant goose step though hated taking orders
• returned to the university
• became a member of Association for Social Policy
• research in political economy
• liberal socialists helped Weber launch his academic reputation
• academic success came very quickly to him
• economic professor at U. Freiburg
• married the daughter of a cousin
• struck down by a neurotic disorder
• for weeks at a time Weber did nothing but sit at a window, idly picking at the ends of his fingers.
• 1903, Weber took over Archives for Social Science and Social Policy
• wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism(1904-1905)
• Economy and Society, 1925
• believed Germans were fighting for honor, not economic gain.
• didn't like the Marxist Social Democratic Party
• Weber-delegate to meetings in Versailles, France
• Weber said: "so long as madmen carry on in politics from the right to the left, I shall stay away from it."
• Weber died of influenza
• tormented personal life
• "The only course left to the modern individual is to learn how to live with the competing and incommensurable demands of reasoned analysis and ethical commitment."-Weber
• Count Otto von Bismarck, head of Wilhelm I's Prussia
• Bismarck engineered a short war in 1866 with Austria
• Bismarck, practical power politics
• Bismarck co-opted working class organizations by giving everyone the right to vote
• Bismarck made an alliance between landowners and industrialists
• Weber believed German peasants would overtake East Prussia
• Germany did not unify quickly enough to become an imperial power
• the Social Democratic Party appealed to urban artisans and to the lower bourgeoisie
• in the 1890s, Bismarck forced anti-socialist legislation through the Reichstag allowed censors to suppress working class organizations whenever necessary
• Germany was unified in 1871, encouraged rapid economic growth
• Germans workers got a state run system of social security
• the Spartacus League became extremely militant
• the Independent Socialists refused to support German militarism
• government troops suppressed unrest in the streets
• Weber believed leftists put class before nation
• Hitler became the German chancellor
• Kant: natural sciences give us knowledge
• moral philosophy based on innate morals
• Weber believed intellectuals were not good at making moral judgments
• "intellectual vigor, analysis, and clear thinking are associated with the life of free men."-William Ellery Channing(1780-1842)
• Weber treated political participation as a pragmatic, not philosophical problem
• Weber: "It is not possible to live in terms of ethical ideals without withdrawing from the world."
• Weber was only exposed to Marx through secondary sources
• Weber's work complements Marx's
• didn't believe societies followed general laws of development

Four types of action:

1. Rationally purposeful( Zweckrational) sell drugs to improve economic position

2. Value-rational (vetrarational) Buddhists define "salvation" differently than Protestants

3. Affective action: emotional and impulsive

4. traditional action: rites of succession for group leaders

power, probability someone will do what you say

domination, probability a command will be obeyed

• class differences determine power differentials in society
• status from property ownership
• political parties: power for power's sake

a) Class

b) Status

c) Party

• states use rational/legal or traditional authority
• bureaucrats, authority from offices
• traditional authority: the English crown
• charismatic leader, emerge during a crisis
• Weber believed religion was an important part of social action

What Religions do

• problem of human suffering, tragedy, and death
• cultural order of how life can be meaningful
• goals and values of ultimate significance
• Protestant: ascetic and methodical lifestyle
• society: network of social relationships
• human freedom: make informed choices among many different types of commitment
• ethic of success(pragmatism) vs. ethic of responsibility (morality)
• we can be reflective and cautious
• capitalism standardized the experiences of many individuals
• institutionalized impersonal leadership
• modern life excludes shared value commitments, a charismatic leader is needed
• asceticism and mysticism: ways of escape
• ascetics: pleasure from the task
• mystics: states of mind. Drugs, meditation, sexual promiscuity, sport, travel. p. 239

Chapter 12, Sumner and Veblen

-The Theory of the Leisure Class, published 1899.

-unique in American social theory

-satire of pretentious wealthy people

-Mark Twain satirized the "Guilded Age"

-compares wealthy people to predators

-became popular reading among the wealthy

-the satire and irony are difficult to ignore

-very private person

-Thorstein Veblen died in 1929

-Dorfman, not a very accurate account of Veblen's life

-Riesman, character assassination

-accounts of his youth, unreliable

-his parents were Norweigian immigrants

-started a successful farm in Minnesota

-attended an austere Lutheran Church

-went to Carlton College

-went to John Hopkins, later Yale

-Sumner, laissez faire conservative

-Ph.D in philosophy from Yale

-couldn't find a university teaching position because professorships usually went to retired ministers

-became engaged to the niece of Carlton College's president

-his wife had a nervous breakdown after working as a high school teacher

-discussed utopian Socialist, Looking Backward

-decided to study economics

-secured a special academic fellowship

-Junior faculty member at the University of Chicago

-significant social/scientific work

-worked for the Department of Agriculture

-hated pretentious attire and luxurious living environments

-he lived in a shack and in a basement

-quiet speaker

-students should be self-motivated in their attempts at learning

-didn't want to be an "agent" of coercion for the u. administration

-discouraged students from taking exams

-had an affair, looked down upon

-cheap cremation, no tombstone, no monument,no obituary, no biography.

-two classes: the "predatory class" and the "industrious class"

-Minnesota/Wisconsin immigrants had lost their family farms through fraud and economic manipulations

-distrust for bankers and land speculators

-moral uprightness: work with one's hands, live off one's physical labor

-self sufficient labor vs. robber barons

-trusts, monopolies, large estates, flaunting of wealth, and manipulative mass advertising, professional business managers

-wealth didn't go to workers, inventors, or engineers but to speculators, middleman, brokers

-agrarian populism,trade-union labor movements, socialist movements-met with opposition from the police ("goon squads")

-universities became dominated by business

-worried about nationalism and patriotism

-wealth without labor is injurious to society

-difficult to trace his intellectual roots

-influences: Kant, Peirce, Dewey, William James, Sombart, Darwin, Kropotkin, Loeb, Morgan, Tylor, Comte, Spencer, Sumner, Bellamy, Marx.

-Kant was concerned with peace on a scholarly level

-humans interpret the world by habits of the mind

-idle curiosity led to scientific breakthroughs

-historical development of economic institutions > abstract mathematical models

-Darwin, world is a series of changes in the environment

-cooperation is more important than competition/conflict in the long term of society

p.358

-change: from an evolutionary development in society

-savagery: simple and peaceful

-barbarianism: conquest driven

-civilization: peaceful/economically developed

-similar approach to Comte: animistic, pragmatic, matter-of-fact

-wife questioned her wealthy Republican background and became a socialist

-capitalist production is wasteful

Habit

1) without rational reflection

2) appear to be common-sense

3.) resistant to change

habits of the mind> form cultural norms

-society: sum of institutions

SAVAGE: self sufficient, hunting, gathering.

-isolated, stable

-division of labor between men and women

-cooperative labor

-deities were nurturing

-men became the predatory class

BARBARIAN:

-accumulation of wealth by a predatory class

--hierarchy, conservative, war-oriented, religion-dominated

-the bulk of the population: subsistence level

CIVILIZATION:

-handicraft

-highly developed technology

-heavy division of labor

-predatory class-business class: members do not produce anything of benefit for society on the whole, just create as much personal wealth as possible.

-capitalist class: beneficiary of everybody else's work

humans behave how institutions/norms tell them to behave

-instinctual drives cause individuals to do certain activities

-a) instinct of workmanship: mold the world creatively through productive labor

b) instinct of parenting: concern for the community and well-being of others, altruistic behavior

c) instinct of idle curiosity: development of systematic knowledge

-The Higher Learning in America, depended faculty with an independent bent

-humans developed instinctual drives to care for others

-evolution of habits

-new economic coordinators (not competitive capitalists) would come in.

-material assumptions are useful

-symbolically communicate status to others to maintain privilege

-"conspicious consumption," "conspicuous waste," and the "leisure class"

-clothes that cannot be worn for labor signify high status

-mansion, expensive pets, high-priced fashion

-fashion is a non-productive use of time, thus it connotes status.

-men dominate women

-men add less to the collective well-being

-men remove women from productive labor for status

-frail women: incapable of hard work, high status

-men removed women from visible labor at least> created job discrimination

-women wanted equal employment and the end to exploitative domination

-Germany: advanced technology + dynastic government> military aggression

-predatory capitalism, from 1700s entrepreneurialism

-economic collapse because controllers would not have technical skills

-business controllers would not understand the technology behind the process

-Capitalism would continue because

1) mass advertising, politicians owned by capitalists

2) the popular habits of mind in USA, business is good, domination by business is natural.

3) the docility of engineers and technicians employed by businesses

-engineers would eventually assert themselves

-didn't believe in historic inevitability

-The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Chapter 2, The Nature and Types of Sociological Theory, p. 29 to 42

• theory can be useful in describing social life
• sociology-part of humanities or social sciences?
• should sociology stay clear of ideology?
• theory should promote critical self-understanding to change the world
• environment: experienced physically or socially
• changing environments: cope with symbolic blueprints
• human communication is arbitrary, reflective, and intersubjective.
• positivism: seeks universal laws to describe phenomenon
• Comte/Pareto: grasp the laws that determine human behavior for a better society
• natural sciences: technical theorizing
• human sign systems are learned
• Weber, understood limits of positivism
• symbols must be understood within culture
• a mechanical clock is only useful to Western-focused individuals
• humans interpret environments
  
• relations/authority are maintained by language: low-status groups-considered unclean
• hard-headed businessmen: thought to benefit everyone in the long run
• authority must be questioned
• critical theory: rigorous self-reflection
• Is our freedom and humanity compromised by low-wage labor in the Third World?

POSITIVISM

• commitment to (1) determinism, (2) empiricism
• scientific laws are applied to situations
• human relations are difficult to observe in a lab setting
• use senses to gain knowledge about the world
• assumes we can accurately interpret reality from our senses
• scientists then interpret the meaning of the data
• how to achieve desired ends in most effective way
• how to decrease a crime rate through social control...
• we should strive for the same standards of objectivity as the natural sciences
• does not give us a straight-forward, simple description of reality
• Science has worked on increasing America's military capacity not providing adequate nutrition for all Americans
• other types of inquiry besides Defense are possible!
• science can help us eliminate "bad" fetuses. SICK!
• Scientists have worked on increasing the destructive power of the state
• scientific knowledge does not invariably serve human ends. If it did, we would end poverty.
• politics drives science, that must be questioned!
• fight for the powerless, not the powerful!
• C. Wright Mills, understand laws within a historic period
• historical research is about the transmission of tradition
• common traditions/language help us understand history
• language is institutionalized
• communication must meet goal: order must be understood
• there is no sociological law that can be applied to all societies
• positivism vs. critical theory: objectivity vs. subjective look at human affairs
• critical theory: why do we do things in a certain way?
• positivism is morally neutral
• many feudal values were dispersed when modern technology was developed
• critical theory is holistic
• 1. look at language: how it creates reality
• 2. people aren't always aware of the rules by which they live. They could be harmful.
• 3. critique of the way people are confined within particular social institutions
• Hegel, the world is a reflection of the mind.
• 1. The world is not thought into existence
• 2. subjects have free will.
• 3. subjects do not have complete freedom to express themselves
• critical theory seeks to change the world
• Freud: neurotically disturbed individuals-insight into rigid, compulsive behaviors
• Marx: working class had to be freed from the dominant ideology that worked against its interests
• sociology is a transcendent discipline
• how can humans demonstrate mastery over their physical and social environments?
  

The Emergence Of Sociology, Chapter One, p. 1 to 27

Assignment: Ch. 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 for Test One.

Chapter One:

The Rise Of Sociology:

• classical: foundational statements on sociology
• began between French Revolution(1789-1799) and WWI.
• 18th century: rural, conservative, uneducated, isolated, lacking in organizational affiliation, largely ignored by the state
• 20th century: liberal, well-educated, members of unions, professional organizations, closely supervised by governmental bureaucracies-modern, bureaucratic, nation-state.
• feudal distinctions between commoner and aristocrat were erased? ideals of democracy and equality of rights ballooned.
  
• 1920, average American lives in an urban area
• more technology, bureaucracy, governmental intervention.
• weapons of mass destruction were invented during WWI(1914-1918)
• women's rights, union-organization, divide between urban, blue collar work and suburban white-collar work.
• pop-music, rejection of traditional sexual/aesthetic mores, and drug experimentation came to the fore.
• Louis XIV(1774 to 1792): very difficult to relate to
• modern world began between 1700 and 1900.
• the traditional, feudal system was abolished

Issues
a) social atomization(Hegel, Marx, Durheim)
b) alienation
c) loneliness
d) social disorganization (Comte, Durkheim)
e) secularization and decline of traditional religious beliefs( Weber, Comte, Durkheim)
f) a growing pessimism about individual's capacity to take rational control of their destiny (Freud, Pareto)
g) widening class division, class conflict, social fracture, and social dissension (Simmel, Pareto, others...)

• Sociology: maturity between 1880(end of 19th century) and 1920(beginning of 20th Century)
• before sociology: Hegel, Marx, Veblen, Nietzche, and Freud
• Hegel, professor of philosophy
• Marx, intellectual giant, great influence on sociology
• Veblen, founder of modern social economics
• Nietzche, antimodern critique

Agenda

• Marxist bias: working class is exploited
• Weberian: anti-Marxist agenda
• ideology: helps groups organize conceptions of authority and shared commitments: attempt to make political society meaningful and legitimate
• ideology: places limits on what may be thought
• strive for truth when blind adherence to custom, tradition, and habit are loosening their grip on the human mind

When is Sociology best:

• scientific and ideological: Spencer, Pareto
• choose among values and different social options
• based on natural sciences-"positivists"
• anti-positivism: wants to enhance human freedom and create humans that are free because they are self-reflective.

Bad Problems

• bureaucracy (Weber, Simmel)
• specialized roles/ diverse modes of consciousness make social relationships difficult-Durkheim, Comte, Spencer
• Pareto: inequality was a fixity in all societies
• Veblen: inequality can be overcome
• modern societies require a "distorted" or "false" consciousness to function effectively (Marx, Freud)

Institutionalization

• Comte, Spencer: academic outsiders
• Durkheim, first professor of society in France
• Weber, Simmel: first sociological society in Germany
• Durkheim believed a sociologist could be a major figure within the hierarchy of a nation
• Weber believed a sociologist could have a limited role, emphasized the limits of sociological knowledge.
  
• Comte, Durkheim, Spencer, Pareto, Simmel-positivism.
  
• D, C,S: instrumental science, help with cause/effect relations
• C, D, restructure social relationships in ways that are moral and harmonious
• Spencer, governmental intervention would disturb the "natural" balance
• Comte, Durkheim: interventionistic reform
• Mead: Scientifically grounded reformism
• 1914 to the 1960s: sociology could become as influential as physics or chemistry?

Issue:

• issue of power and domination: is there something fundamentally wrong with the structure of modern societies?
• French and German theorists: interested in broad and theoretical/philosophical issues
• Durkheim allied with the liberal, secular, and reform-oriented wing of the French political establishment
• Weber: tradition emphasized the uniqueness of human existence
  
• Weber: Germany was struggling to establish a sense of national identity

Enlightenment Philosophy and Classical Sociological Theory

• Enlightenment(1600s, 1700s) had its beginnings in the European Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries
• critical reaction against traditional authority
• knowledge-of nature/self couldn't derive from authority/tradition
• Rene Descartes(1596-1650) and Isaac Newton(1642-1727)
  

Descartes

• careful observation and clarity of expression served the pursuit of knowledge more faithfully than blind obedience to the dogma of the Roman Catholic Church
• his works were banned by the Roman Catholic Church

Newton:

• British Puritan scientist
• no contradiction between Protestant faith and use of reason to understand the universal and necessary laws of nature
• science upheld the dignity of man

French philosophers: Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot believed that both physical and social worlds could be understood by reason

• the universe had to follow natural laws
• natural laws, reason, social analysis, rational self understanding could lead to progress
• Diderot believed religious dogma was truth's worst enemy
• was a deist, ended his life as an atheist and a materialist
• no person had a natural right to govern another
• Rousseau: civil liberties derive from a social contract to which individuals must consent freely
• Rousseau: human freedom and potential are not realized individually
• Marx: Capitalism destroys an individual's "social essence."
• Immanual Kant, the greatest Enlightenment theorist?
• Kant: Enlightenment is leaving immaturity, the courage to use your own intelligence, you need the freedom to make the use of reason.
• reason> authority/tradition
• freedom/truth: complementary
• Rousseau: an individual is the product of social factors, must create institutions to help humanity achieve its true potential
• Kant: moral self-direction
• Kant: a civilized society is one that encourages individuals to act morally. Morality, is the outcome of free will.
• Kant: man is a natural object and a moral subject.
• Simmel/Weber: the individual could not be constrained by determinate laws
• Kant: as a rational, independent moral entity, the individual is free from at least some extrinsic, causal determinants of behavior
• Comte/Pareto: counter-Enlightenment: skeptical about the claim that individuals were potentially rational and perfectable beings
• Nietzche/Weber: the freedom of individuals to create meaning would destroy meaning
• Kant: no guidelines on how to behave
• Comte: Voltaire/Rousseau were partly responsible for the French Revolution and some of its excesses
• the jacobins of the French Republic and the founding fathers of the American republic liked Voltaire/Rousseau
• the capitalist class replaced the aristocratic class,
  
• end of 1700s, bourgeoisie were in control of Britain, France, and the U.S.A.
  

SOCIAL EVOLUTIONISM AND CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

• conservative theorists didn't grasp the variety/contingency of social forms
• they believed America after WWII was a well-integrated, well-ordered social system
• 1) dualism is an awkward/fragmented approach
• Marx/Weber: How does a society/institution reflect on history?
• Spencer/Hegel: Develop a unified field theory of order in and through change
• social order and social change: thought of together
• believed some societies were more advanced than others
• Christian: time is linear, only way crucifixion is significant
  
• Greeks: Change is repetitive: advance, maturity, decline
• non-western societies were considered less advanced
• teleology: a belief that there is an innate drive (telos) toward an end state
  
• Comte: theological to positive
• Marx: primitive to advanced communism
• classical: change would involve a continuation and development of the final form
• Hegel: history strives to overcome alienation
• Mead: influenced by Hegel
• Charles Darwin: biology is determined by environmental factors and always subject to further change
• classical social evolutionists: confused evolution with development
• development, pre-determined
• evolution, open-ended
• Comte: Theological(fetishism, polytheism, monotheism), Metaphysical, Positive (TMP)
• Marx: Primitive communism, ancient slave society, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, advanced communism.
  
• Lewis Henry Morgan: savagery, barbarianism, civilization
  

Social Evolution

• Comte, outcome of the evolution of human mental states
• Hegel, dialectical movement based on the alienation of the spirit
• Marx: dialectical and materialist view of change
• Spencer: social evolutionism was subject to a universal law from incoherent homogenaity to coherent heterogenaity
• Veblen: materialist and cultural causal analysis of why social evolution occurred.
• Comte, Veblen, Hegel, Marx, Spencer: idea of progress in theories of development
• Spencer: progress is inherent in social development
• Marx: organized actions of people fighting for evolutionary developments (capitalism to state socialism to communism)
  
• Weber/Pareto: critical of "progress"
  
• Pareto: human instincts don't change,
  
• Weber: legal/rational authority over traditional authority led to a demystified and bureaucratized social life.
• Durkheim: Suicide results from decline of rules in one stage of society with no new set of rules.

The Problem Of Capitalism:

• imperialistic expansion, anti-aristocratic revolution, the industrial revolution> Western modernity
• information about other, "primitive" societies grew
• Spencer/Mead: sympathetic to the capitalist vision
• Marx: property ownership and human rights are limited within capitalism
• Durkheim/Comte: pro-and-against republicanism
• Durkheim/Comte: equality before the law, private property rights, the abolition of aristocratic privilege BUT want to restrain acquisitive desires.
• bourgeois behind rapid industrialization
• problems: low wages, unsafe conditions, long hours
• Spencer: free-market industrialism
• Durkheim/Comte: industrialization was chaotic but conditions for workers could be improved
• Marx/Veblen: a new class society would emerge

FRANCE: REVOLUTION AND COLLECTIVISM:

• France, most powerful nation state in Europe
• unified nation, centralized government
• unified, wealthy, style, aristocratic culture
• center of learning and social philosophy
• "salon society" encouraged social speculation, Voltaire and Rousseau were patronized by the leisured classes
• philosophers wanted to be thought of as enlightened, cultivated, and in touch with the latest intellectual fashions
• the middle class was most receptive to the idea of social change
• Louis XVI: extravagent debt> Estates General was summoned
• Three estates: aristocracy, clergy, commoners
• the commoners refused to approve the king's request for money, initiated an insurrection in the streets of Paris
• France switched between republicanism/dictatorship
• the workers of France saw their interests different from those of the ruling middle classes, turned to socialism
• socialism: utopian experimentation to advocating violent revolution
• Paris Commune of 1871, a worker-controlled socialist government-ultimately destroyed by government troops. 20,000 working-class citizens lost their lives.
• 1789-1919: the French favored social collectivism over individualism
• French Catholic: traditional, reactionary. Conservatives romanticized feudal life.
• socialists wanted an egalitarian and industrial collective.
• Marx lived in exile in Paris during the 1840s
• Comte/ Durkheim: conservative emphasis on the organic good of the collective
• Durkheim: indirect democracy
• Comte: antidemocratic, rule by an intellectual elite

GERMANY: DISUNITY AND IDEALISM

• Germany had many independent principalities
• boundaries by politics/religious differences
• modernization needed a centralized political authority?
• Germans lived under princes or the kaiser
• German academics were idealistic to escape from the disunity?
• Hegel/Marx: focused on community/unity
• Weber, concerned with legitimate authority
• Weber: Germany was backward, unimaginative, authoritarian
• Weber: wanted Germany to adjust to industrialism, bureaucracy, modernization

ITALY: CITY-STATES AND MACHIAVELLIANISM

• after fall of the Roman Empire, northern Europe developed a feudal order
• Italy split into city states
• Florence, Genoa, Venice: dominated foreign trade.
  
• Italian banks financed the rest of Europe
• both sides of a European war borrowed from the same financier
• wealth did not lead to unity
• wars created mercenary groups
• Italian political life-shifting alliances, self-serving deals, bribings, secret agreements, organized poisonings, planned assassinations
• Catholic leaders often declared war on the pope
• Niccollo Machiavelli wrote the Prince-political control is best taken through deceit, violence, and threat.
• northern Italian bourgeousie was unable to take control of the Italian state
• Italy-economically backward
• Hegel, Durkheim, Marx-political authority associated with morals
• Pareto: political/moral authority are not one

BRITAIN: INDUSTRIALISM AND UTILITARIANISM

• England, first to experience the industrial revolution
• powerful industrialists achieved power peacefully
• The Conservative party-party of landowners
• The Liberal party: party of the entrepreneurial and middle classes
• Benjamin Disraeli, radical, friend of the lower-middle classes
• Adam Smith + Adam Ferguson: highly successful economy was one of "natural" balance
• government interference and regulation were harmful
• British middle classes-less time for Hegel, Durkheim, or Marx.
• England: deregulation, decentralization, and personal freedom were important value orientations in England.
  
• England: Equality meant ability to compete
• France: Equality of outcome
• English competitive individualism made utilitarianism possible and meaningful
• Utilitarianism: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
• 1. analysis of the utility of various actions in terms of the overall increase in general happiness or in terms of improvement in the general welfare
• 2. open opportunity
• 3. equality of rights before the law
• 4. minimum of governmental regulation

THE UNITED STATES: EXPANSION AND VOLUNTARISM

• The U.S. had no indigenous aristocracy
  
• 1. individualism
• 2. progress
• 3. opportunity
• a democratic society for white, male, middle-aged property owners was largely realized
• industrial and railroad boom after the Civil War
• the US surpassed Britain, France, Germany by 1900
• workers toiled for low wages/ 1000 controlled the main political parties and derived most of their income from unearned income
• Veblen, critical of wealthy, predatory businessmen
• Mead, believed the US was becoming more egalitarian
• voluntarism, the ability to choose between different types of behavior

NON-EUROPEAN ANTICIPATIONS OF SOCIOLOGY: SUN-TZU AND IBN KHALDUN

• sociology: offshoot of modernity and modern forms of experience
• promotes reflexivity and self-reflection
• Sun-Tzu: effective in the kingdom of Wu
• secular, analytical, instrumental approach to the social
• The Art Of War, stresses strategic planning
• the motivations of followers can be manipulated
• a long military confrontation weakens the peasant class that the rulers depend on
• Machiavelli-like emphasis
• Ibn Khaldun, causal factors that affect the rise and fall of civilizations

THE INFLUENCE OF CLASS,RACE, AND GENDER ON CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT

• all white and European men
• all were bourgeois, middle-class not aristocratic
• historical exclusion of racial minorities, working-class individuals, and women from sociology's institutionalization
• Nietzche: antisociological